Shallaki (Boswellia serrata) (Boswellia serrata)

Shallaki (Boswellia serrata) is not consumed as a food for macronutrient value; it is used primarily as a resinous gum extract valued for its bioactive compounds. Key bioactive constituents include boswellic acids (typically 30–65% of standardized extracts), with the most pharmacologically significant being acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid (AKBA, approximately 2–5% of crude resin, up to 30% in high-potency standardized extracts), 11-keto-β-boswellic acid (KBA, ~3–5%), β-boswellic acid (~15–25%), and acetyl-β-boswellic acid (~5–10%). The resin also contains α-boswellic acid and its acetyl derivative. Other bioactive compounds include incensole and incensole acetate (diterpenes, ~1–2%), as well as essential oils (5–9% of the oleo-gum-resin) composed of α-thujene, α-pinene, myrcene, limonene, and p-cymene. The gum portion (~20–30% of the raw oleo-gum-resin) contains arabinose, galactose, and xylose-based polysaccharides, providing minor soluble fiber. Mineral content is negligible in typical supplemental doses but trace amounts of calcium, magnesium, and potassium may be present in the crude gum. Protein and fat content are minimal and nutritionally insignificant at standard dosages (300–1200 mg/day of extract). Bioavailability of boswellic acids, particularly AKBA, is inherently low due to poor aqueous solubility and significant first-pass metabolism; however, co-administration with lipids or use of phospholipid-complexed (phytosomal) formulations such as Boswellia Phytosome® (Casperome®) can increase plasma bioavailability of AKBA by approximately 5–10 fold. Lecithin-based delivery and piperine co-supplementation have also been shown to enhance absorption. Peak plasma concentrations of boswellic acids are typically reached 3–5 hours post-ingestion, with a half-life of approximately 6 hours for AKBA.